FAQ
Lithium, symbol Li with an atomic number of 3, holds the distinction of being the lightest metal, appearing just after hydrogen and helium on the periodic table. In its elemental state, lithium is highly reactive and buoyant enough to float in oil, rendering it an ideal material for batteries.
Lithium metal is rarely found in its free form in nature; instead, it is commonly present in ionic minerals like petalite, lepidolite, and spodumene within pegmatite rocks or in salt brines. Although lithium is abundant in the Earth’s crust, only a few global deposits boast a concentration significant enough to enable economically viable extraction. Given its crucial role in batteries for electric vehicles, lithium stands as a highly sought-after critical raw material.
In the 1790s, on the Swedish isle of Utö, José Bonifácio de Andrada, a Brazilian statesman, made the initial discovery of Petalite, a mineral containing lithium. Notably, he was also the first to identify another significant lithium-containing mineral, spodumene, from the same source.
In 1817, Johan August Arfvedson conducted a thorough analysis of petalite and discerned the presence of a previously unknown metal, which he named lithium. However, it wasn’t until 1855 that Augustus Matthiessen, a British chemist, successfully isolated this lightest known metal.
Fast forward to the present era, and we find ourselves immersed in a world filled with devices powered by small, lightweight, and efficient lithium rechargeable batteries. These devices range from laptops and mobile phones to an increasing array of electric vehicles and various other digital and electronic devices. The utilization of lithium in electric car batteries and power storage batteries is anticipated to drive a substantial surge in demand for the metal in the coming decades.
Moreover, lithium batteries play a crucial role in renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy storage, industries that already have established roots within the landscape.
Prior to the commercial introduction of the lithium-ion battery in 1991, lithium primarily found applications in ceramics, pharmaceuticals, and various industrial uses. The surge in demand for portable electronics, particularly batteries, has seen lithium consumption escalate to approximately 50% of total demand in 2017. This demand source is poised for rapid growth, propelled by the emergence of electric vehicles and power storage batteries—innovations set to transform transportation and power distribution in the foreseeable future.
Lithium stands out as the optimal metal for batteries due to its elevated electrode potential and low atomic mass, contributing to batteries with a notable charge- and power-to-weight ratio. The proliferation of electric vehicles, exemplified by models like the Tesla Model S containing around 63kg of lithium, is a significant driver of the global upswing in lithium demand.
As renewable energy becomes increasingly pivotal in power generation, lithium assumes a crucial role in grid-scale battery storage, essential for stabilizing energy supply to the grid. Additionally, lithium is integral to diverse applications, including its use as a flux in ceramics and glass industries, as well as in lubricating greases and trace amounts employed in the pharmaceutical industry.
Lithium exists in trace concentrations across various geological settings, with 1.6 parts per million (ppm) Li in the Earth’s mantle, 4.3 ppm Li in the oceanic crust, and an average concentration of 20 ppm Li in the continental crust—the rocks visible at the Earth’s surface. As the 30th most abundant element, lithium ranks behind copper but ahead of lead, tin, and silver (USGS, 2017). In these trace amounts, lithium atoms typically substitute for other ions, primarily magnesium, in common rock-forming minerals and only sporadically forms lithium minerals.
Despite its relative abundance, economic concentrations of lithium are exceptionally rare, leading to a global pursuit to identify deposits where lithium can be economically extracted. Economically viable concentrations of lithium can be found in hard rock sources (e.g., granite or clay) or in solution in lithium-enriched brines (such as the lithium-rich salar deposits in Chile and Argentina). While both sources are currently exploited worldwide, they present distinct challenges in terms of extraction.
Lithium extraction currently involves processes from both hard rock and brine sources. The growing demand for lithium, driven by the rise of electric vehicles, necessitates the exploration and development of new deposits. This entails devising innovative extraction methods to tap into lithium-rich deposits that have not been previously exploited.
Hard Rock: Hard rock mining involves drilling and blasting solid rock, followed by collecting, crushing, and processing to extract lithium-bearing minerals from the rock. Specialized processes are then employed to achieve the correct chemical composition and concentration required by the battery industry. Lithium extraction from minerals like spodumene and petalite typically yields lithium hydroxide or lithium carbonate. While extraction methods have been well-established for many hard-rock deposits, ongoing scientific efforts focus on developing new methods for clay minerals and other potential lithium sources, especially in Europe.
Brines: Lithium-enriched brines form in various geological settings, primarily arising from the interaction between fluids and lithium-enriched rocks. Lithium, being a highly soluble ion, easily leaches from rocks into saline water.
Salar Brine Deposits: Brines from closed sedimentary basins, like ‘salar’ brines in South America, hold 58% of the world’s known lithium resources. Historically, lithium has been extracted from such brines in the Chilean Andes. This process involves pumping salt-rich waters to the surface and directing them into evaporation ponds, where solar evaporation concentrates the lithium brine over approximately 18 months. Once concentrated, the solution undergoes a recovery process to eliminate unwanted elements before adding sodium carbonate to precipitate the lithium carbonate product.
While this method is currently significant, it heavily relies on solar evaporation, posing inefficiencies, generating substantial waste volumes, and utilizing large amounts of scarce water in the extremely arid and remote areas.
Lithium itself is not inherently dangerous when handled properly and used in accordance with safety guidelines. However, it is crucial to note that lithium can pose risks in certain situations:
Chemical Reactivity: Lithium is highly reactive, especially in its metallic form. It reacts vigorously with water, and precautions are necessary to prevent accidents.
Fire Hazard: Lithium-ion batteries, commonly used in electronic devices and electric vehicles, can pose a fire hazard if damaged or improperly handled. While incidents are rare, they can occur.
Health Concerns: In pharmaceutical applications, lithium is used to treat certain mental health conditions, but it must be administered under medical supervision. Consuming high doses without proper medical guidance can lead to toxicity and adverse effects.
Environmental Impact: The mining and extraction of lithium can have environmental implications, including water usage and potential habitat disruption. Sustainable and responsible practices are essential in lithium production.
In summary, while lithium has various uses and benefits, it is crucial to handle it with care and adhere to safety protocols, especially in industrial processes and battery manufacturing. Additionally, the use of lithium in pharmaceuticals should always be under the supervision of healthcare professionals.
Lithium extraction can have several environmental impacts, depending on the extraction method. Here are some considerations:
Water Usage: Traditional lithium extraction methods, particularly in brine deposits, involve pumping large amounts of water to the surface for solar evaporation. This can lead to significant water usage and potential depletion of local water sources, affecting ecosystems and nearby communities.
Chemical Contamination: The use of chemicals in lithium extraction processes, such as in brine evaporation ponds, can lead to the release of contaminants into the environment. This may include elements like magnesium and boron, as well as chemicals used in the extraction and purification process.
Habitat Disruption: Both hard rock mining and brine extraction can result in habitat disruption. Hard rock mining involves removing large volumes of rock, altering landscapes and potentially affecting local ecosystems. Brine extraction may involve altering natural salt flats or evaporation ponds, impacting local flora and fauna.
Energy Consumption: The energy-intensive nature of lithium extraction processes, particularly in hard rock mining and mineral processing, contributes to carbon emissions and environmental footprint. This is a significant consideration, especially as the demand for lithium grows with the expansion of electric vehicles and renewable energy storage.
Waste Generation: Lithium extraction processes generate substantial amounts of waste, including tailings from hard rock mining and by-products from chemical processes. Proper waste management is crucial to prevent environmental contamination.
Efforts are underway to develop more sustainable and environmentally friendly lithium extraction methods, such as direct lithium extraction (DLE) technologies that aim to reduce water usage and environmental impacts. However, it’s essential to continually assess and address the environmental consequences of lithium production to ensure the long-term sustainability of this critical resource.